Crop Classification using short-revisit multitemporal SAR data. SAR utilizes the temporal backscatter (physical) response of a crop and, along with machine learning techniques, can be effectively used for crop mapping and monitoring (Sonobe et al., 2014; Tamiminia et al., 2015; Gao et al., 2018). doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2009.04.016, Menenti, M., Azzali, S., Verhoef, W., and van Swol, R. (1993). 28, 195–200. Available online at: https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/USAID_Afghanistan_Project_Appraisal_Document_-_Public_Version_2017-04-03.pdf, Wardlow, B. D., and Egbert, S. L. (2010). Earth Observ. doi: 10.1016/j.compag.2012.07.015, Gao, Q., Zribi, M., Escorihuela, M., Baghdadi, N., and Segui, P. (2018). Available online at: https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxviii/4-c1/Sessions/Session1/6739_Grenier_Proc_pos.pdf, Guan, H., Li, J., Chapman, M., Deng, F., Ji, Z., and Yang, X. Afghanistan is nearing self-sufficiency in grain production. Biogeochem. 3. Remote Sens. Monitors are warning that 2011 may see a surge in Afghanistan's poppy production as high prices at the farm gate, coupled with a crippling drought that has ravaged wheat production, provide powerful incentives for farmers to grow the outlawed crop. Remote Sens. ISPRS–International Archives of the Photogrammetry. The NDVI threshold values depend on various factors, such as: (i) whether it is a dry year or wet year; (ii) whether there has been early or late sowing of the crop; and (iii) atmospheric conditions at the time of data acquisition. Remote Sens. Wheat production is estimated by USDA to have fallen 55 percent from the previous year. Rem. Figure 3. The full impact of the successful Green Revolution program in Afghanistan was realized in 1973 by the surplus production of wheat (about 500,000 tons), peak production of cotton (170,000tons) and peak exports of grapes, raisins and almonds. United States Department of Agriculture. Afghanistan - Afghanistan - Agriculture and forestry: Agriculture and animal husbandry, mainly consisting of subsistence farming and pastoral nomadism, are, in more normal times, the most important elements of the gross domestic product (GDP), accounting for nearly half of its total value. Alternatively, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is an emerging technique in crop mapping (Oguro et al., 2001). Available online at: http://www.ageconalanya.com/ICFAEC%202018%20PROCEEDINGS%20BOOK.pdf, Avetisyan, A. Agric. About 70 percent of Afghans live and work in rural areas, mostly on farms, and 61 percent of all households derive income from agriculture. and pomegranates, almonds and pistachios, and could lean on this for financial stability if production is done correctly and exports are made. Using randomly collected training samples and the seasonal composite of sentinel 2 images, NDVI thresholds were identified to separate the wheat from other crops during sowing, peak and harvest time at the provincial level. However, the variability of responses shows overlap and makes it difficult for the threshold-based separation (Figure 5). Space Res. With Iran, Pakistan, India, and Russia nearby, Afghanistan has a market with extensive populations which could encourage a great market of exports. Similarly, wheat crop yields had been increasing since 2003, but in 2007 yields dropped 25% from the previous year. Integration of orthoimagery and lidar data for object-based urban thematic mapping using random forests. The application of Random Forest was applied within the classified mask generated from the optical image analysis. Utilizing a 2010 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) cropland mask, wheat sown area for 2017 was mapped integrating decision trees and machine learning algorithms in the Google Earth Engine cloud platform. While poppy provides Afghan farmers some security net from war and drought . Random forest classification of crop type using multi-temporal TerraSAR-X dual-polarimetric data. 2013, 85–119. Available online at: https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/highlights/2015/07/Afghanistan/Index.htm, Bercovici, H., and Pata, V. (1996). Recent wheat imports have come from the Black Sea region, and that is expected to continue in 2021-22 due to price and quality considerations, the USDA said. U.S.A. 108, 20260–20264. (2014). Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Dordrecht; New York, NY: Springer. About 12% of the land is arable and less than 6% currently is cultivated. (2006). The wheat mapping was done at the provincial level. The major food crops produced are: corn, rice, barley, wheat, vegetables, fruits and nuts. doi: 10.1016/0273-1177(93)90550-U, Muradi, A. J., and Boz, I. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. At the national level, different varieties should be reported separately, reflecting their different uses. Multiple polarized SAR data could be a better option for classifying wheat using the RF algorithm. Environ. 4, 423–431. 45, 5–32. (2010). 7). Efficiency of wheat seed production and scope for crop . The Agriculture Data Brief spans land use, machinery, and fertilizers to agricultural production, trade, and forecasts, providing you with the latest data and insights developed using recognized data sources to support your analysis. Fouth, for operationalization of the system, capacity development has been done for Geospatial staff in MAIL but, many of the MAIL staff have left during the study period. It requires an additional 1 million ton of wheat to become self-sufficient, which is predicted to be accomplished in 2020. (2003). Though Afghanistan wheat imports fluctuated substantially in recent years, it tended to increase through 1970 - 2019 period ending at 88,750 thousand US dollars in 2019. (A) Phenological characteristics of different crops (Laghman Province); (B) Phenological characteristics of wheat in different AEZ. Background: Wheat is the most important staple crop in Afghanistan and accounts for the main part of cereal production. Some authors use single arbitrary thresholds, e.g., 0.17 (Fischer, 1994), 0.09 (Markon et al., 1995), and 0.099 (Lloyd, 1990), whereas some authors use threshold specifiers like the long-term average (Karlsen et al., 2006) or % peak amplitude of VI (Jonsson and Eklundh, 2002). About 1 million tons (equivalent to 25% of internal demand) of wheat are imported annually to meet internal requirements (Martínez and Gilabert, 2009). The preprocessed images were also loaded into GEE asset to run the classification. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.031, Grenier, M., Labrecque, S., Benoit, M., and Allard, M. (2008). The description of the methodology is given in the following sections. Afghanistan is among the world's largest importers of flour. A random sampling approach was utilized for the collection of the field data/sample points. Total arable land is 6.5 million hectares of which 3.1 million ha is irrigated and 3.4 million ha is rainfed (FAO, 2010). Piao, S., Fang, J., Zhou, L., Ciais, P., and Zhu, B. The more accurate estimation is provided immediately after the harvest season. irrigated agricultural land, rainfed agricultural land, fruit trees, vineyards, barren land, sand cover, forests and shrubs, rangeland, permanent snow, built up, and water bodies and marshland (FAO, 2010). Figure 9 shows the distribution of irrigated and rainfed wheat areas for 2017 produced using both optical (S2) and SAR (S1) data and images from sowing until harvest. Despite being the dominant cereal crop in Afghanistan, the production of wheat fails to fulfill the internal demand. Remote Sens. Afghanistan has diverse topographic and climatic conditions resulting in wide variability in growing seasons across the entire landscape. The calendars (Figure 3) were utilized as a starting point to characterize the timing of phenological stages of wheat. 2). Remote Sens. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6986e.pdf, Liakos, K. G., Busato, P., Moshou, D., Pearson, S., and Bochtis, D. (2018). (2014). Sens. The second set of reference data were collected by MAIL during a crop cutting survey that covered 17 provinces. “Opium yield estimates in Afghanistan using remote sensing,” in Seventh International Conference on Agricultural Statistics (ICAS VII). doi: 10.1007/s00484-014-0802-z, Keywords: sentinel 1, sentinel 2, GEE, crop type, random forest, Citation: Tiwari V, Matin MA, Qamer FM, Ellenburg WL, Bajracharya B, Vadrevu K, Rushi BR and Yusafi W (2020) Wheat Area Mapping in Afghanistan Based on Optical and SAR Time-Series Images in Google Earth Engine Cloud Environment. Only about one-eighth of the total land area is arable . better production technologies. Interannual variations and trends in global land surface phenology derived from enhanced vegetation index during 1982–2010. Hence, the NDVI thresholds are specific to the 2016–2017 growing season. Hanoi: International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2006.05.003, Ahmad, J. Afghanistan imports wheat mainly from Turkmenistan and Pakistan, two of its neighboring countries. 89, 30–40. 104, 88–95. Environ. 88,750 (thousand US dollars) in 2019. Currently, no operational system exists in Afghanistan to provide a rapid assessment of wheat sown area which is essential to support the food security management. In Afghanistan, while the prospects for spring wheat and irrigated summer crops are favourable, following the Taliban takeover, the economic and food security situation is expected to worsen. doi: 10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00135-9, Zhang, X., Tan, B., and Yu, Y. Second, the final data were used for quantitative accuracy assessment. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2014.04.008, Simms, D. M., and Waine, T. W. (2016). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Characteristics of vegetation phenology over the alaskan landscape using AVHRR time-series data. These rains helped to boost the MODIS NDVI for the northwestern crop slightly above that observed in 2012/13 and well above last year’s level which was a drier year (Fig. Remote Sens. Pham, H. T. M., Huynh, T. T. T., Duong, T. T., and Kawarazuka, N. (2017). Similarly, the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC), a pro-active organization working in opium poppy monitoring using high-resolution satellite images, conduct annual assessments of opium poppy sown areas (Simms and Waine, 2016; Avetisyan, 2017). (2012). This stems from the fact that wheat is a major staple food crop in Afghanistan that also has significant cultural value. Sunday on CNN's "State of the Union," retired Gen. Remote Sens. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Agricultural Sector Review (No. Given average wheat production in 2020, wheat exports are likely to be near average with above-average export prices expected to continue, likely in part due to high demand in the region. Rem. MODIS NDVI curves for the northern region indicated an above average crop at or just above a production level observed last year (Fig. The acquisition time of the image is critical to identify seasonal thresholds and distinguish different crop types. The overall accuracy was <75% for irrigated wheat for only six provinces out of 34. Accuracy Assessment Method for Wetland Object-Based Classification. |, http://www.ageconalanya.com/ICFAEC%202018%20PROCEEDINGS%20BOOK.pdf, https://www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/Afghan_opium_survey_2017_cult_prod_web.pdf, https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/highlights/2015/07/Afghanistan/Index.htm, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html, https://hwbdocuments.env.nm.gov/Los%20Alamos%20National%20Labs/General/14447.pdf, https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxviii/4-c1/Sessions/Session1/6739_Grenier_Proc_pos.pdf, https://www.istat.it/storage/icas2016/b09-simms.pdf, https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2016%20Pre-Harvest_Assessment%20Report.pdf, https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/USAID_Afghanistan_Project_Appraisal_Document_-_Public_Version_2017-04-03.pdf, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/245541467973233146/pdf/AUS9779-REVISED-WP-PUBLIC-Box391431B-Final-Afghanistan-ASR-web-October-31-2014.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Figure 10. Glob. Like any other crop production system seed is critical to wheat production also. In the threshold-based method, the values of VI are plotted against time of year and single values are chosen to define different stages of phenology (Karlsen et al., 2006) though the method for specifying the threshold varies. doi: 10.1016/S0273-1177(01)00345-3, Olofsson, P., Foody, G. M., Herold, M., Stehman, S. V., Woodcock, C. E., and Wulder, M. A. In the first step, reference data collected from wheat and other crops for 34 provinces of Afghanistan were subjected to quality check. Cropping Calendar by Agro-Ecological Zones for major crops. Afghanistan is renowned for apples (Malus ssp.) Afghanistan Special Report: Pre-Harvest Assessment. The 5-year average is 4.26 million tons. (1997). Nature 386, 698–702. Food prices and inflation easing. A large part of the Afghan wheat crop is grown in the Northern provinces with the majority of the crop being dependent on seasonal precipitation (Fig. 148, 42–57. Cropping calendar information aggregated by province (Figure 3) suggests that the sowing season of wheat overlaps with barley, opium poppy, and vegetables. As of 2021, Afghanistan's harvest produces more than 90% of illicit heroin globally, and more than 95% of the European supply. International Conference on Food and Agricultural Economics, 2nd Edn. United Nations World Econ. BR and WY: data analysis and writing. The approach followed in the study can be used to generate wheat area maps for other years to aid in food security planning and policy decisions. If kappa coefficient equals to 1, then the classified image and the ground truth image are identical. For the wheat area classification, bands B4 (Red), B8 (NIR), and B11 (SWIR) from the S2 were used; whereas the VV (Vertically transmit Vertically receive) Polarization band was utilized from the Sentinel 1 data. In 2020, wheat production for Afghanistan was 5,010 thousand tonnes. It is a measure of how the classification results compare to values assigned by chance. The agricultural sector in Afghanistan supports the livelihoods of nearly three-quarters of the total population and contributes nearly 28% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Muradi and Boz, 2018). Int. 3d). (2016). VT: concept development, analysis, implementation, and writing. The cloud masking utilizes Sentinel-2 Band QA60, a quality flag band, to identify and mask out flagged cloud and cirrus pixels. 37, 127–139. View all There is no well-defined rule for selection of the number of trees. Due to the drought, wheat production is suffering and causing the economy to become even more unstable. Space Res. However, Guan et al. In 2016, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) carried out rice mapping using sentinel data in a few provinces of Afghanistan (Latham, 2017; Haworth et al., 2018). Rem. The growth pattern is also significantly different. doi: 10.1016/j.compag.2015.05.001, Tilman, D., Balzer, C., Hill, J., and Befort, B. L. (2011). Land surface phenology (LSP) refers to the timing of different life-cycle stages of plants (Martínez and Gilabert, 2009). (2018). To overcome this limitation, the wheat area map obtained from the optical image analysis was further refined using Sentinel-1 SAR data. Remote Sens. Glob. However, wheat production has been unstable during the last decades and the . The timely estimation of domestic wheat production is highly critical to address any potential food security issues and has been identified as a priority by the Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL). In southern Afghanistan, MODIS NDVI curves for the irrigated Helmand and Kandahar provinces were found to be just below that of the curves for the last 2 years (Fig. production capacity affects its availability in remote areas and is the basis for income generation for farmers in these areas. SERVIR-HKH was a joint development initiative of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Sens. Despite a decline in its share of Afghanistan's overall economy, the sector still employs 40 . on the long-term prospects for expanding domestic wheat production. Beneficial rains then continued on throughout the flowering and maturation period which exceeded the cumulative precipitation for the last 2 years (Fig. The most recent imports of Afghanistan are led by Wheat Flours ($436M), Broadcasting Equipment ($336M), Refined Petroleum ($325M), Rolled Tobacco ($317M), and Aircraft Parts ($266M). FAO. As of 2021, Afghanistan's harvest produces more than 90% of illicit heroin globally, and more than 95% of the European supply. Triticum spp. Ahl, D. E., Gower, S. T., Burrows, S. N., Shabanov, N. V., Myneni, R. B., and Knyazikhin, Y. Surv. doi: 10.1111/j.1466-822X.2006.00234.x, Latham, S. J. Ensuring food and nutrition security. Irrigation systems, roads and markets have all sustained damage. (2003). Another of Afghanistan's major flour supplier was Uzbekistan, which in turn used Kazakh grain for production. While analyzing the data, we consulted province-wise crop calendars. Variations in satellite-derived phenology in China's temperate vegetation. Natl. Ecol. require systematic sampling approaches and a large number of accurate ground data for training the classification model (Camps-Valls et al., 2003; Murmu and Biswas, 2015; Tatsumi et al., 2015). Environ. Res. Poor field level data can result in underfitting or over-fitting of the classification model and result in overestimation or underestimation of the classification results (Liakos et al., 2018). Climate 6:97. doi: 10.3390/cli6040097, Hird, J., DeLancey, E., McDermid, G., and Kariyeva, J. Overall precipitation for the season was normal and generally above the levels of last year (Fig. (1994). The NDVI characteristics of the opium poppy in Helmand province (Figure 5B) showed higher separability from the wheat during the sowing and peak season. doi: 10.1038/386698a0, Oguro, Y., Suga, Y., Takeuchi, S., Ogawa, M., Konishi, T., and Tsuchiya, K. (2001). There are two important user- define parameters in RF, i.e., (i) Number of trees; (ii) Number of variables. The estimated all-time high for opium production was set in 2017 at 9,900 tons worth some $1.4 billion in sales by farmers or roughly 7% of Afghanistan's GDP, the UNODC reported. The difference in the NDVI thresholds for different provinces is mainly because of the shift in the phenological cycle (early and late sowing) of wheat and other crops. The Constraints to Wheat Production Afghanistan's wheat crop is threatened by a new, devastating form of stem rust known as Ug99 (Singh et al. The system is designed keeping in mind the challenges in Afghanistan and provides the capacity for operationalization. Manage. doi: 10.1080/2150704X.2014.889863, Soria-Ruiz, J., Fernandez-Ordonez, Y., McNairm, H., and Bugden-Storie, J. The country has been the world's leading illicit drug producer since 2001. A representative image. Afghanistan is essentially a pastoral country. More than 80% of wheat (both irrigated and rainfed) is produced in sixteen provinces of which Badghis, Takhar, Balkh, Kunduz, Herat, Helmand, and Kandahar are major wheat-producing provinces accounting for nearly 50% of the wheat production in the country. APP. Wheat and cereal production is Afghanistan's traditional agricultural mainstay. Production is down 25,000 tons, or 0.5 percent, from last year. Afghanistan - Wheat production quantity. Figure 2. Firstly, the classification system is implemented in the free cloud platform of Google earth Engine assuming that GEE will continue ingesting the Sentinel−2 and Sentinel−1 data in its image collection. Monthly SAR Backscatter profile by crop. Russian diplomat. . Electr. The study area (Figure 1) covers the whole of Afghanistan (34° 32′ and 38° 1′ 32.16″ N latitude and 69° 9′ and 38° 20′ 49.92″ E. longitude).
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